Foundations of Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Foundations of Behavior - Essay Example F Skinner. The theory believes that behavioral development happens through classical and operant conditioning. There is a strong relation between stimuli and behavioral response. In this case development is seen as a continuous process where learnt responses keep accumulating and new ones increase with age. Several studies were conducted to reinforce the theory that responses in behavior are a result of external stimuli and that the external factors are more important as compared to internal factors. To take an example, John Watson experimented with an infant's responses to a rat and stimuli coupled with it. The infant was not afraid of the rat. However, he developed fear of the rat after a series of sharp sounds were made whenever the rat was shown. Behaviorists conclude that environment is more influential in shaping behavior. Also, behaviors can be modified using external stimuli. In context of psychodynamic theories, famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and his theory of psychoanalysis come to mind. Psychodynamics refers to theories of Freud, his followers' or theories based on his ideas. Anna Freud, Alfred Adler Carl Jung and Erik Erickson are some of the most popular contributors from the field of psychodynamics. The theories are have been derived from sessions with patients, case studies and use of projective techniques to understand the workings of human mind. Psychodynamics strives to make connections between thoughts, motives, subconscious mind and how people perceive the world. The prime focus in psychodynamics is the interrelation between emotional states of id, ego, and superego and their impact on early developments and processes. Psychodynamics also believes that early experiences are conserved in the unconscious mind. Later in life, these conserved experiences, thoughts and emotions either remain buried in the unconscious or find way to the conscio us mind. These buried experiences are at times the cause of mental disturbances. Various psychodynamic theorists have devised their own stages of development from infancy through adulthood. However, the underlining concept is that at each stage, an individual is confronted with conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way to resolve these conflicts differs at each stage. Individuals constantly strive to strike a balance between personal needs and social expectations. In contrast to behaviorism school of thought, psychodynamic theory focuses on drives and forces working consciously or unconsciously within a human mind. While behaviorist theory lays stress on continuous development, psychodynamic theory believes that development happens in stages. In psychodynamics, nature and nurture both play an important role in development because the inner impulses are channeled through environmental experiences. The cognitive theory looks at humans as active participants in building knowledge. The most influential theory was propounded by Jean Piaget. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, children acquire 'schemes', which are the building blocks of knowledge. According to this theory, there are four stages in

INTRODUCTION TO PROPERTY LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

INTRODUCTION TO PROPERTY LAW - Essay Example Kumar does not possess the right to claim any right to be given the first preference. In fact, the sale is a three stage process starting from contract, transfer of conveyance and finally registration of title (Lecture Note- formal acquisition of title). In Mr. Kumar’s case, even the contract was not done according to legally valid terms (Lecture note- must be in writing) and hence his claims hold no ground. At this juncture it is necessary to check the formal way to be adopted in developing a contract. At the pre-contract stage, or before signing a contract, the buyer and the seller can negotiate and agree on the sale leading to a ‘subject to contract’. However, as far as a contract is not signed and exchanged in the usual way, the contracts are not legally binding (Lecture notes). As Goo (69) illustrates, similar was the case of Spottiswoode, Ballantyne & Co Ltd. V. Doreen Appliances Ltd. [1942] 2 KB 32 at 35; Keppel v. Wheeler [1927] 1 KB 577 at 584. In fact, a ccording to 1975 Law Commission directive (Law Commission 65, January 1975, Para 4), before a formally signed contract, there is no legal validity for the ‘subject to contract’. ... Then, the buyer can ask the seller to make necessary changes in the draft and can ask for explanations. Thereafter, both the parties sign the contracts and exchange them. At this stage, the purchaser is normally required to make a deposit of 10% of the purchasing price. If the buyer fails to do the transactions in time, he loses the money. In this context, it is apt to note another example that Goo (73) describes i.e. Union Eagle v. Golden Achievement [1997] 2 WLR 341, PC) as in Sourcebook on the law. The above information proves the weak position of the claims made by Mr. Kumar. All the communication he had with Thorpe Trustees were in the pre-contract stage and one can say, they have agreed on the ‘subject to contract’. However, as evident from Spottiswoode, Ballantyne & Co Ltd. V. Doreen Appliances Ltd, ([1942] 2 KB 32 at 35) this will not have any legal validity. In addition, the payment Mr. Kumar made was another mistake. Such a payment, not according to the normal procedures of contract, will not give him any ground, especially as it was made under cover of a Compliments Slip. In addition, the long time that has elapsed, that is from 8th September to 11th November, will further weaken Mr. Kumar’s stance as even in his letter, he has promised to act quickly. Making his situation even pathetic, Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989, Section 2 states that the agreement must be in writing (Lecture Note-the agreement must be in writing). The conversation Mr. Kumar had on telephone with Thorpe Trustees on 9th September will not have any legal value. Thus, in total, it is evident that Mr. Kumar will not be able to claim any legal right to be solely considered for

Discussion 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Discussion 1 - Essay Example These are the components that make up the content of art piece. Therefore, content can then be defined as the significance of the art components in a visual rendering. Clear examples of these definitions can be seen in the Catalonia painting collection of Rebecca Crowell which clearly depicts the strong formation of the painting and the content that comes to the fore once the brain has had time to absorb the lines, drawings, and scratches that make up the content of her colorful art work. The relationship between the content and form of the painting is what our eyes see as art. These two components combine to create a thought process in our minds pertaining to the overall effect of the visual qualities as seen in the painting. The two cannot be separated because the form of the painting is what we see while the content is the meaning of what we see as interpreted by our minds. Although the message of a painting in terms of content and form are believed to be timeless, the interpretation of the viewer tends to change over the years. This can be attributed to the fact that people learn more about the background and influences of the artist and his state of mind at the time the painting was created, thus changing any interpretation or understanding that future generations may have about the art work. However the original interpretation shall always stand the test of time as the baseline interpretation of an artists work. Your definition pertaining to content and form is certainly succinct. It is a clear definition that can easily be understood by any lay reader. However, I beg to differ with you in terms of your view that whenever form changes, content changes as well. There have been other painters such as the Kleophon Painter who painted the same content in various forms throughout time. He painted many Red Figure Attic vases while sticking to specific genres. These themes included, Greek mythology, domestic themes, and paintings of warriors. Although he

To what extent does Karl von Clausewitz explain the changing nature of Essay

To what extent does Karl von Clausewitz explain the changing nature of warfare after 1798 - Essay Example Clausewitz’s main claim in his book ‘On War’ published in 1831 revolves around the fact that in order to understand warfare, it must be considered as a social phenomenon. War comes from deliberate circumstances and these circumstances make wars easier to understand. This statement was considered in the light of two conceptions of war at that time, first, that war is capable of linear solutions, and secondly, that war is basically chaotic and cannot be rationally evaluated (Gat, 1989). This view of war led to the perception that it is merely an offshoot of politics, mixed is with violence. This perception hid a more complex phenomenon. First and foremost, war has changed over time. Since social organizations have changed over the years, the nature of parties competing has also changed. Secondly, in seeking a better understanding of what is happening in conflicts, there is no longer a need to consider the military events in a political setting. Third, there is a nor mative element in the formula. Clausewitz was of the belief that force was more acceptable when it was considered as a tool for state policy. Considering the suffering caused by war, this was the justifiable reason utilized in the use of violence; however a normative failure would not negate the analytical process. (Clausewitz, eds, Howard and Paret, 1979, p. 586). In order to establish a practical understanding of war, there was a need to evaluate the relationship between military activities and the political climate of these events. On the outset, there was a direct linear link between the scale of the goal sought and the extent of force required to fulfill it. In a conflict which was carried out to conquer an opponent who aimed to totally conquer and annex a country, one is almost always certain to expect significant efforts to defeat the aggressor. On the other hand, where a smaller objective was sought, a smaller consequent action would be seen. Clausewitz was of the understand ing that events on the battlefield and in the political arena are very much related to each other. A battlefield victory might prevent other nations from being embroiled in any conflict, it may also convince them of the fact that a victor has become a threat to them (Szabo, 2008). A victory may also convince a nation that its competitor is weak and that it needs to improve its objectives. The consideration of a country deciding to intervene or step away from a conflict would

Who is really in charge of Platos Republic Essay

Who is really in charge of Platos Republic - Essay Example entitled ‘The Philosopher Ruler’: â€Å" The society we have described can never grow into a reality or see the light of the day and there will be no end to the troubles of states,†¦ of humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really and truly become philosophers †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Plato, p no. 263). Thus, Plato is convinced that the solution to the problems of the state is possible only when philosophers become rulers or rulers, philosophers. It is necessary to consider why Plato opts philosophers to be the right candidates to entrust Governmental affairs of the State. According to him, competence and good character should be the criteria for this selection. He believed that it is incorrect to select rulers either by their wealth or aristocracy; instead he emphasized on an aristocracy of talent. So he holds the view that philosophers who are of highest talent and are given the highest training should take up the responsibility of handling the affairs of the state. Thus, Plato sees all the qualities required of a good ruler in philosophers. One may wonder about the practicability of Plato’s ideal Republic and his solution to the problem- of entrusting philosophers with the task of governmental affairs. But one can never negate the goodwill, discretion and motivation behin d this

Marketing Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing Assignment - Essay Example Successful differentiation gives the firm a competitive advantage as customers will look at the products as superior and unique and can be achieved in various ways. This paper will first detail eight ways to differentiate product offerings, and then concentrate on packaging the product in a more creative manner and incorporating new functional features into the product or product innovation. Strategies for Product Differentiation One way to differentiate products is via product innovation by adding functions or features into a product and commanding a higher price (Trout & Rivkin, 2012: p 34). These features can be added through acquiring or licensing complementary feature sets or by using the firm’s in-house team for product development. Another way to differentiating products is through packaging. At times, all it takes to differentiate or re-energize a product is via changing the packaging. This was very effective when it was used in collaboration with another product and d elivered in an innovative manner. While this method does not have enough value to change a consumer’s life, the manner of packaging offers more convenience allowing them to charge more (Trout & Rivkin, 2012: p 45). A firm could also pursue other market niches in areas that are unsophisticated (Trout & Rivkin, 2012: p 67). ... Yet another product differentiation strategy is via the generation of referrals. A firm, in this case, helps to cultivate referrals and create sales models around the type of selling that are consultative while being less confrontational (Trout & Rivkin, 2012: p 76). In a competitive market, prospects referred by happy customers will be inclined to buy products. This can be achieved by offering incentives to current customers in the hope they will send referrals. Other firms will offer increased service as a means of product differentiation. They combine superior service with a commodity product that helps to differentiate this commodity. Through re-defining their service, the firm, redefines the playing field and offers a home-court advantage since other competitors do not use this combination while they charge a premium for the product. Another strategy is via figuring out what they can guarantee. Since the firm has to deliver on expectations from the client or refund them, they wi ll offer an upfront guarantee (Trout & Rivkin, 2012: p 87). A firm could guarantee their clients that their prices are the best, and offer to refund their money if they find cheaper items of the same quality elsewhere. Since the customer has not time to compare prices, they will buy this product because the price is guaranteed to be the lowest. Firms could also collaborate with complementary service or product providers when their product does not stand by itself as a unique offering. Both entities benefit from this arrangement, for instance, the HBO’s partnerships with motels to show their movies allows HBO to have exclusive viewership in these motels while the motels benefit from showing exclusive movies. Finally, a firm could also employ their hidden assets as a

John Marshall Essay Example for Free

John Marshall Essay â€Å"Its is emphatically, the province and duty of the judicial department, to say what the law is.† (Ducat, Craig Constitutional Interpretation p. 10) These seventeen words written two hundred years ago made the highest court in the United States supreme, and making it so, Chief Justice John Marshall’s words in that sentence continue to make an impact on every Supreme Court case thereafter. Justice Marshall laid the basic foundations to protect the Federal system that was established by the Constitution. In Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden the Supreme Court maintained the United States as a federal state. Marbury v Madison was the influential case that the Supreme Court cites as a precedent when employing judicial review. It left the power to be rested on the judicial branch when determining to uphold either the law or the Constitution. By establishing the right to judicial review, Marshall, with the support of the legislative and executive branches, made all cases before the courts subservient to the U.S. Constitution. Cases that have been heard after Marbury v. Madison, that come into question, must be interpreted through the Constitution. Uniformity of all states of the Union were established when Marshall and the Supreme Court ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland. Although the Constitution gave powers to the states under the Tenth Amendment, Marshall implemented the powers of the Federal government by exercising Article 1 Section 8 Clause 18 (necessary and proper clause) and Article 6 Section 2 (supremacy clause). Marshall explained that the Constitution gave the federal government the power to incorporate a bank if it deemed it necessary and proper not for the powers of Congress, but necessary and proper for the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution. Marshall also outlined the rights of the states by enacting Article 6 in his decision. He stated that the supremacy clause prohibited the states from having the power to tax, which would then involve the states power to destroy the powers of the Constitution to create. Gibbons v. Ogden expanded the powers of the Federal government aforementioned in the previous two influential cases. This case defined the Commerce Clause found in Article 1 Section 8 Clause 3. In his genius, Marshall defined commerce not only as an exchange of commodities, but also the means by which interstate and foreign intercourse those commodities travel. By giving the Federal government control over commerce through interpretation of the Constitution, Marshall preserved the prosperity of the country as an economic Union conducting business under national, not state, control. Chief Justice John Marshall’s decisions in all three of the cases explained previously depict the evolution of the Supreme Court. Marbury v. Madison separated the powers of the three branches of governments, McCulloch v. Maryland separated and defined the powers of the Federal and state governments, and Gibbons V. Ogden separated the commerce powers of the Federal and state governments. Marshall decided each case based on the foundations established by the U.S. Constitution, and in each of his decisions, he preserved the integrity of the Framers intentions of the United States as a Federal state.